MAMPURI

Manipuri may be described as a dance form which is at once the oldest and the youngest among the classical dances. Seemingly free and unbound governed only in a limited manner by the poetic line and the melody, a long waning metrical system, it is in fact rigorously structured and its easy fLowr and spontaneity is its outer form w-hich makes for a smooth commtuiication but is not to be mistaken for simplicity. What is identified as the stage art, Manipuri is only one fragment or section or the outermost layer of much larger and deeper complex tradition wdiich has many layers of civilization and culture going back in time. Its contemporary vitality is the result of its being integral to the life of community at large. Although a full and comprehensive history ofManipur has yet to be written, it is clearfromthe fragmentary evidence, both ofthe records ofManipru and elsewhere as also from secondary evidence of other literatures of India, that thisjewrel of natural beauty lying in the hills ofthe north-easten borders ofIndia has attracted from times immemorial people from different parts ofthe country and from other parts ofthe w-orld. The small valley and the adjoining hills have been the home of many tribes and groups of people. Amongst these are those known by the generic terms Nagas (including the Maos, the Tankhuls, the Kabuis); besides there is a w-hole group ofpeople known by another generic term called the Kukis. Other tribes and groups ofpeople with different ethnic individuality are known to the region. In the valley are the Meiteis. By some accounts, their antiquity" can be traced back to the Vedic times, by other accounts, this valley was the home of the famous Chitrangada with whom Arjuna fell in love. It w-as perhaps also the home ofthe ancient tribes described in the Mahabharata especially the Kiratas.

Whatever the heritage ofthe group of people whether traced back to the Vedas or the Mahabharata or to the more recent times manymigrationstookplace from India ranging from Gujarat, Bengal to Orissa. Some w^ere the result of the Vaishnavite movement wdiich spread in this part in the 17th and 18th century. Today the Meiteis are distinctive groups known for their beautiful lifestyle, their refined rituals and their variety" ofskills ranging from w-eaving to basket-making to w-ood-w-ork and above all their enchanting dances. Commonly wrhen people speak about Manipuri dance or Manipur, they elude the one level or one aspect ofthe large variety- ofMeitei dancing w-hich coniesimderthe sub-category- ofJagoi or at best sankirtana. As iii the case ofKerala, in order to understand the tradition as dance called the rasa dances or the various types ofsankirtana one has to dig deeper to see the other layers of the performing arts of this region. Foremost amongst the preVaishnava traditions of the performing arts are the ritual dances. These, as in other parts of India, are man’s attempt to make or enact, in specific time and space the beginning of the cosmos, the creation and its ultimate destruction or devolution. . The Meiteis were divided into seven districts or clans called the Salais. Each of these had particular deity connected with the vegetation, the forest and the environmentThe Lai Haraoba is a typical example ofthe ritual ofa re-enactment of creation, the world and the cosmos through a period of a few days. Literally, it means the festival ofthe gods. It is performed annually by the groups ofpeople in themonths ofApril and May, although there are differenttraditions or varieties ofperforming theLaiHaraoba. Essentiallyeach ofthese follows a similarstructure. Todayfive differentvarieties ofthe LaiHaraoba are known and these are associated with different venues such as Kanglai, Moirang, Kakaching, Andra and Chakpa.

The festival begins with a procession going to a nearby river or a pond. Here the leaders of the village invoke the spirits of the waters. The leaves—one placed facing the sky and the other covers the first leaf. The ritual symbolises the emergence oflife from the eternal writers. Ritually, a seed is put within the two leaves. The procession retrums with a filled pitcher from the pond and the leaves placed above it. The procession with the leaders then installs, this consecrated pitcherwith leavesin a temporaryshrine. Symbolically, thisisthe comingtogether ofmatter and energy Shiva and Shakti. Then begins a festival lasting 10-15 days where each act of creation oflife on earth is enacted. The leaders ofthe festival are the male priests and the wmnen priests. From the moment ofimmersing the leaves in thewaterswhen the spirit ofthe godsisinvoked to the last, these human priests look as if consecrated and belong to another world. It is they, who throw" the flowers into thewinters or place the seedbetween the two leaves; in the second phase they invoke the quarters. These are the four comers ofthe State ofManipur. They involve the Lord of the Moirang—Thangjing—the Lord of north-west, the Lord of the southwest—Wangbaren; the Lord of the south-east— Morjing, and Koubru—the Lord of the northeast. Having infused life and invoked the directions, they invoke the beginning oflife. This stage is veiy important phase of the dance because through gesture the enactment of the creation of human life is presented. Two rows are made: each is led by the Maibi. A song describes very clearly the various stages of the creation of life, of the making of the various parts of the body and ultimately the making of man. In a subsequent phase through gestures again a house is built, through hand-gestures, bodily movement and the singing of a poetic phrase. When the house is complete there is the placing of the roof and then finally the dedication to the God. Thereafter is the installation again suggestively of the male and female  principle as nong-pokning-thon who perhaps represents Siva and Panthoibi who possibly represents Parvati.

Having created a hut and a thatched roof installed the duties, other functions of life are re-enacted. There is a sequence where through gestures is presented the sprouting of cotton seed, its plant and the weaving of the cloth. The cloth is too then dedicated to the gods. Fish culture is important to Manipur and therefore the next stage re-enacts life ofthe fish and the catching of a fish with a net. Later there is the enactment of different types of games and ultimately also wrestling, acrobatics and the presentation ofthe martial arts. . It is important to keep this sequence ofthe ritual enactment ofthe making and the unmaking ofCosmos in the Lai Haraoba festival because many patterns and choreographical designs knowntomany otherperforming arts ofManipur continue to be inspired by both the symbolism and the artistic forms which are seen in the Lai Haraoba enactment. Meiteis subscribe to a deity or one may call it a design or a symbolic Yantra called the Pankhanba. This is the age-old design of the intertwined serpentwithoutbeginning and end. Each ofthese functions ofthe life as also of the creation of the universe is executed through a highly refined choreographical pattern which moves in semicircles and intertwines patterns wiiere the beginning isthe end and the end the beginning. The intricate patterns of choreography of floor design wiiich wre see in Manipuri dancing are directly related to wThat is integral to the festival ofthe Lai Haraoba. The figure of eight is a basic movement ofthe body and choreographical patterns evolve out ofthis. Closely related to the Lai Haraoba sometimes even integral to the Lai Haraoba and at othertimes performed independentlyboth ritually and otherwise is strong and \lgorous tradition ofthe martial arts ofManipur. These are known as by the generic term Thangta. These martial arts are a parallel to the Kalari tradition or the KaHaripattyam of Kerala. In some ways, this tradition is more rigorously structured and ritually refined. There are different types of martial skills, sometimes performed solo and sometimes performed as duets and yet at other tune in groups. The solo dancer or the solo performer who wields either sword or shield invariably executes intricate pattern ofdesignsthrough the movements of his feet and his arms. In each case, the pattern is of the intertwined snake called Pankhanba.

In one number called Akao Thengon wiiich is amongst the nineThengous (ritual designsthrough spear) known to the martial artstraditions of Manipur, an intricate pattern of the intertwined serpent is executed in and around the space ofthe body ofthe dancer. Exactly asthe Maibis had invoked the life ofthe waters and the life of earth, the gods ofthe directions, the sky and the elements now7 the solo performer invokes all these through his sword and spear. The movements are breath-takingly beautiful The suppleness ofthe body ofthe dancer and his capacity for leaps,jumps, hops, covering ofspace is unbelievable. MANIFURI 69 Besides, these two, there are other traditions of the Manipuri or the Meitei performing arts which are hnportant for understanding what is considered as Jagoi or Rasa traditions. There were the traditions ofthe singing ofthe ballads. These ballads sometimes recoimt the stories form the Meitei Purana. Chief amongst them is the singing of the history of Khamba Thoibi to the accompaniment ofthe stirring times ofthe instrument called Pena. The story of the love of Khamba Thoibi is sung by a single artiste where the bow of his instrument becomes a prop for enactment. He sings, he plays the instrument and he performs. Alongside are the different types ofballad singing drawn from the Sanskrit tradition. These include the Wari Leeba (singing ofRamayana and Mahabharata) and Haiba Thiba traditions. The latter requires two singers— one who sings or recites words in Sanskrit and the other who provides the commentary. It will be obvious from the above that Manipur is the home ofthe dancers ofthe many Naga tribes, the ritual performances of the Meiteis, the singing and the recitation traditions and the traditions ofthe martial arts. It was into this rich complex of cultural traditions, the music and the dance, the ritual enactment of creation and the varied tradition of the martial arts and ballad singing that Vaishnavism arrived in Manipur.

Some seeds had already been sown ofVaishnavism in this partjudging horn the fact that a copper plate ofabout 763 A. D. mentions the words Sri Hari. King Khongtekcha is considered to be devotee of Siva and Devi. He also regarded Sri Hari as his supreme deity. This is not surprising because elsewhere in India the eighth and the ninth centiuies were the periods of a strong and pervasive Shaivite tradition with Devi worship. Between the eighth and the fifteenth century, there is certainly a gap. The next archaeological evidence comes only from a small temple attributed to about the fifteenth century in the region of King Kyamba. This small temple lies in the Vishnupur area ofManipur. It must have been an important centre of Vaishnav worship. Again, there is a gap of nearly 200 years before wre begin to find Vaishnavism in hill swing. During this period, many migrations also took place. The first ruler of Manipur initiated into Vaishnavism was King Pamheiba better known as Garib Nawraz. A powerful Icing, an able administrator, King Garib Nawaz came under the influence ofthe Ramanandi Cult It is said that he became the disciple of Shantidasa, a zealous missionary of the cult. Conflict, tension, wars, battles wrere not unknown. Whether through the sword or through the song, Vaishnavism took deep roots in Manipur. By the early eighteenth century. Vaishnav worship or more specifically the Krishna cult became strongly rooted. The forms of Bengali Kirtana, the literature and music of the followers of Chaitanya was popular. The son of Garib Nawraz w as a devout king known as Rajasri Bhagya Chandra. He followed his father and became a disciple of Narottamdasa of Bengal. The origins of many of the traditions of music and dance of Sankirtana and of Rasa are attributed to the genius of this Icing. The period of his rule, from 1763 to 1798, was one of great turmoil. He wns defeated in battles, was in exile and he re-conquered his land.

Whether in exile, living with the Icings of Ahom or independently, his mind and heart turned towards Krishna and Radha. Many legends are woven around his life and w7ork but most important amongst these is a legend about his seeking the rasa and the costumes of the rasa in a dream. There is more historical truth about his having made his daughter perform the role ofRadha in the performances ofthe rasa. Later his daughter renounced royalty and became a devotee of Lord Krishna. The traditions of the Krishna cult became even stronger and more popular during the rule ofhis successor Maharaj Chandrakirti in the nineteenth century between 1850 and 1886. Singing of the 64 Bhakti rasas of Bengal and performance of 64 sections of the Sankirtanas in the royal palace wus firmly established. There was a search for a new7 Padavalis. Poets and artistes w7ere sent to Navadeepa and Vrindavan. There was expansion ofthe music repertoire and a refinement of drumming. Alongside w7as a renewal of the festivals which punctuated the annual life of the people of Manipur. . On the one hand there w7ere the reasons which w7ere celebrated with great gusto and festivity. Each was related to a particular moment or episode in Krishna’s life. On the other w7as the life cycle of the Manipuri w7hich as elsewdiere in India wus now7 marked by a series of ritual performances; each provided opportunity for a different type of Sankirtana. The first and foremost amongst the seasonal festivals was and continues to be the Doljati'a coinciding with Holi of other pail of India. It is also called the Yaosang. Yaosang literally means a small hut for he sheep, perhaps this festivity around the Doljatra wus an amalgam or a true fusion of many strands in Manipur culture. On one plane, it wus the harvesting seasons, the season of the spring, the season of newT birth, of the making of new7 thatched huts, on the other it was the celebrations of the birth of Lord Sri Krishna Chaitanya the great devotee of Bengal Vaishnavism. On the third, it wus related to the Puranic myth of the burning of Holika. In all cases, it wus the full moon of Phalguna and it wus and is the period wliicli celebrates the dance of Lord Krishna and the gopis at Vrindavan as described in the Srimad Bhagvata. Elsewrhere in India, especially Assam, ritual festivities are held on this occasion, thatched huts are made and burnt at the end of the festival. In North India the Holika is burnt and this is followed by the festivity of colour throwing or recognised popularity as the occasion of the Holi. In Manipur, the Doljatra, the Phalguna Purnima takes its own character w7hen the men and women join together to sing and dance collectively before the Govindji Temple.

This is the Sankirtana called lloli Pala. As in the case of the Lai Haraoba wdiere the festival ended writh collective dancing of young men and women alternately now7 also at the tune of Yaosang Festival, young men and w7omen dance together throughout the night weaving serpentine movements again recreating in floor patterns the design of the intertwined snake. This is the period of great festivity, of the finding of life partners and of the celebrations of the spring tune dance of Radha and Krishna. Later in the year, sometime around early part ofJune on the second day ofthe bright moon of Ashada is held the Rathyatra. The Rathyatra is most famous in Jagannath Puri. This celebrates the journey of the deities when they are taken out in a procession and installed in a chariot (Rath). Rathyatras are also known to other parts of India. Manipur assimilated the Jagannath cu t conventions and rituals but gave them a different form. Instead of the three chariots, there is a host of chariots which are taken out The deities sit on them, take their residence at another temple called Gundicha and return on the eighth day. The car is decorated by skilled workers who come from far and near. There is puja and singing by thousands of devotees and more join in when the procession begins to move. In the Holi Pala and during the tune of Holi, everyone sang Hari Haii Bol; now they sing Jai Jagannath Jai Jagannath. This festival is the occasion of a very important style of singing called the Khubak Ishai, which really means music with clapping. It is prescribed by large group ofwomen. The theme is Krihsna’s departure from Vrindavan to Mathura, in his mission to vanquish Kamsa. However, the narration is through the words of Lord Chaitanya and each ofthe women represent the yearning of the human for the divine. The Nupi t.e. the woman Khubak Ishai may seem a very simple collective dance of women but it is highly structured.

It is performed to vocal music and there is a minimal mime in the presentation. The presentation ofthe Khubak Ishai is an important component of the totality of Manipuri dance and some women artistes have become professionally skilled in the presentation of the Khubak Ishai. On this occasion, there is also another land ofstyle ofsinging called Jayadeva after the name of the writer ofthe Gita Govinda. The opening canto ofthe Gita Govinda, i. e. Dasaavatara. is sung in a very old style, perhaps a style which has something to do with other forms of Meitei singing. Not all the verses are taken from the Gita Govinda; many interpolations from other Padavalis are added. Other seasons, especially the Autumnal full moon, Sharad Poomima, and the Kartik Poomima, soon after Diwali provide occasions for the presentation of collective music and dance sometimes performed only through singing and at other tunes performed to the playing of the cymbals called KaHala either by men or by women. There is thell the life’s cycle ofthe Manipuri. The life ofHindu is marked by 16 Samskaras; in Manipur each ofthese stages or Samskaras is punctuated by the performance of a particular type of Sankirtana. SankiHanas are performed at Birth, at the first giving ofsolid food anna prashana when the ears are pierced, when the sacred thread is worn (Yagyopaveet), at marriage (vivaha) and at death and after creamation and on death anniversaries. There is no occasion when the Manipur community does not celebrate these important moments whether these are ofjoy or sorrow through music and dance. These Sanldrtanas, although collective ritual on one level are really the fundamental foundation on which the traditions of Manipuri dance have been structured. . To go back for a moment to history, we know that when the Ramanandi cult becamepopularinManipurthe style ofsinging calledBangadesh Pala orAribapala became popular. Although it is not known what is the original form of this Bangadesh orAriba Pala was in Bengal, in Manipur it assumed a new and a very beautiful structured form.

One has only to observe the performance ofAriba Pala in Manipurto be convinced thatthis Sankirtana is distinctive to Manipur’s artistic manifestation. It is no longerjust collective singing, it is in fact a highly structured choreography. It is performed in a mandapa which is constructed in a circular shape. Here first and foremost facing north sits the Sabhapati or the patron of the performance. On either side are seated his ministers. The Brahmins face inwards. Then enter a group ofperformers into this nat mandap where a centre has already been established. The group is led by a very experienced renowned performer artists Guru Ishei Hanba. A mridangam player is equally important. Then the second respondent group enters led by the Duhar. The seating, the execution and the sequence of the performance follows a pattern wThich is very clearly outlined and there can be no departuresfrom it. Closely observed whether it is a group of Anba Pala players or the later type of Sankirtana performers popularly known asthe nata sankirtana each ofthese executes a pattern ofdesign ofthe intertwined serpents through drumming, singing in slow; middle and fast tempos and chiselled movement patterns of the intertwined serpents. The whole group moves from one sequence to the other and ultimately the performance culminates in a crescendo of ecstasy. While one cannot make anv conclusive statements, but it would appear thatsome aspects ofthe Lai Haraoba tradition and some of the choreographical patterns of the Ariba Pala (or the Bangadesh Pala Ape) ofSankirtana fused in Manipur. Alongside evolved a new form ofSankirtana now called the Nata Pala, the wnrd Nat in this case meaning dancer, nartak, actor, abhineta. The beginnings of the Nat Sankirtana are attributed to the reign of King Chandrakirti by some scholars and to Bhagya Chandra Maharaj by others. Whenever this particular form ofSankirtana began and possibly it did begin with the devotee King Bhagya Chandra Maharaj, it w-as a further refinement ofthe Ariba Pala tradition. Today it is considered the most importantritual performance.

In fact the Meiteis call this a mahagagna as it lasts for nearly five hours at a stretch, begins with preliminary rituals, follows a rigorous structure, and culminates in a moment of great ecstacy. Like the Bangadesh Pala, the group comprises two teams. Usually, there are 16 artistes who enter the mandap ofthe enclosure. On one side is the main performer—the abhineta called Ishei Hanba, along with three other supporting musicians, dancers; on the other side another semicircle is made by the respondent dancer  player abhineta called Duliar. He too enters with his group ofsupporting artistes. Two players on the Manipuri Mridangam called Punga are most important. The entire group called Pala enters the Mandap where a centre has already been established by the placement of plantain leaf, a piece of cloth and with ritual objects surrounding it. After performing the preliminary rituals, called the Mandali puja, wdiich symbolically invoke the five Vaishnav saints—Krishna Chaitanya, Nityananda, Adhuta, Gadaghat and Sahrivats there is the announcement by the President ofthe assembly as in the case ofthe Ariba Pala. He announces that there will now be the invocation to the saints. Soon after the twro mridangamplayersstrike and execute amostintricate sequence ofdrumming. In counter distinction to other forms of singing in Manipur, the mndangam playing itselffollows a specific sequence ofragas. Each sequence ofdrumming is in a particular raga. Thereafter the chief dancer or the leader i.e. Ishei Hanba sings in a very slow7 tempo a melody which could be called an alap. This is once again followed by the playing of the mridangam as also a very balanced and controlled playing on the cymbals by the supporting group. This section is called the sanchar or the variations of the improvisations ofthe miidangam wdiich is punctuated by the playing on the KaHal or the large cymbals. These sections may be considered all as preliminaries of prelude to the main performance wdiich begins wdien Ishei Hanba or the leader starts a section known as sabha vandana i. e. salutation to the audience. Soon after he returnsto the Gum Vandana wdiich deals with the theme of the life of Chaitanya or Gam Chandra. Then is the presentation by the two groups of a series ofintricate metrical cycles, sung lyrics playing on the pim.

Sometime there can be presentation ofas many as 64 different types ofthe bhavas. The sections ofthe metrical eyele called the cachouba in a ‘8’ beat cycle, sometimes is also called the teen-tala achouba. This is followed by a teen-macha wdiich is in a 7-beat pattern or a 14-beatpattern called the Rajamel. Here, the main performer—the respondent the group, the mridangam player all execute together or separately the most intricate improvisations on the basic metrical cycle. The period ofrealisation almost follows wdien from the Rajamel the group moves on to the rendering, ofthe metrical cycle knowm as Tan Chepa set to a 4-beat cycle. Finally, there is the Menkupa set to a 6—beat metrical cycle pattern. In each ofthese, there is the playing of the drum, there is the singing by the main actor, dancer and the response ofthe second group led by the Duhar and the execution of choreograhical pattern by the supporting actors, dancers who play on the Kartals. All in all, the rigorousstructuring ofthe nata sankirtana, its sequence, its change ofmoods and its presentation ofthe different groups of the metrical cycles is a staggering piece ofstructured musical compositions and choreographical patterns. The lyrics or the songs are many; however, one single theme is chosen for elaboration for a particular sankirtana. The group may well choose only the theme of the nayikas and present the different moods of the heroine as that ofthe abhisarika or the lady going out for a tryst or another type like the mugdha, the quarrelsome etc. The dancers singly or collectively consider themselves to be the gopis who are yearning for the Lord. So no matter ofwdiich  theme is chosen, it is in fact only a performer who underlines the yearning ofthe human for the divine. The singing is marked by an easy flow through three octaves, high pitched singing which has pathos and compassion, ecstasy and pain built into it. At moments or climax and at moments of great ecstasy, a member ofthe audience pays obeisance to the centre by a dandavat pranam (prostrate). The actors, dancersrespond alsobyprostrating on the ground. The communication between the audience which sits around the mcindap and the performers within the mandap is complete. The atmosphere is charged and tears flow effortlessly through sheerjoy.

These sankirtanas constitute a system ofmetrical cycles, talas, techniques of very controlled and restrained kind, vocal music and drumming. There are sections of the Pala which have great delicacy and grace. There are others which are vigorous and masculine and which constitute the Tandava portions ofclassical Manipuri dance. Sometimes, dancers can execute movements which are remniscent of birds and animals, at other tunes there are men with women’s. Often many ofthe dancers or men both in the Ariba Pala as also in the Natan Pala are above 60 or 70 and sometimes 80. The performance ofthe Nata Sankirtana is a unique experience unparalleled to anything anywhere else in India. Here, as in the Ariba Pala, the choreographical pattern centres around the intertwined snakes or the figure of 8. Finally, then there is also another type of kirtana called the Dhrumel Here 14 mridangam players playing on the drums the entire sections of the Nata SankiHana. Understandably, the emphasis is on the intricate talas, the improvisations ofthe sanchar and execution of many types ofpermutations and combinations. Symbolically, the 14 types of improvisations or variations are dedicated to the saints beginning with Chaitanya and going to Nityananda and to the eightsadhus and the sixgoswamis ofYrindavail. The Dhrumel is also highly stylised and structured form of the performance understandably. This is also considered a gagna. While one cannot make any conclusive statements on the relationship of the earlier types of Manipur dance i.e. the Pre-Vaishnavite and Post-Vaishnarite, it is clear that the Vaishnavite traditions of poetry, music and dance were superimposed as a further layer on the vibrating highly sophisticated culture of the Meities. . We have referred only to a few ofthe traditions ofManipur dance. There are many more. It was from this complex that the rasa dances evolved. Indeed, one would think that the rasa dances performed only by women were the last of the performance sequences ofa much more elaborate ritual performance comprising invocations, singingthe execution ofthePalasfollowedbythe drumming complex. We referred earlier to the dream of Bhagya Chandra Maharaj when the rasa dancers came to him as a vision. While one may question the authenticity ofthis legend, one cannot ignore that Bliagya Chandra Maharaj laid the foundations of everything that we recognise by the generic term Manipuri dance. .

Texts Although there is meagre textual literature on Manipuri dance, mention must be made of Sangeeta Lila Vilas. Despite the fact that the manuscript has been the subject of considerable heated controversy in regard to its authorship, date and authenticity, its contents are significant for understanding the technique of Manipuri dance. On the whole, although it follows the Natyasastra tradition, it is no slavish imitation. There are significant departures. In this work, he defines tandava and lasya, which are not found in the treatises ofthe medieval period from other parts ofIndia. The tandava is divided into the chalanam and the gunthanam. Lasya is also subdivided into simitanga and sphuritanga. This classification is distinctive to this work and is followed to this day in contemporary practice. This classification ofNatya also differed from the classification known to the other treatises which have only divided the generic term into nritya and natya. The author divides it into rasaka and rupaka. The work rupaka may be identified as a variant ofthe dasa rupaka and the other natika and prakarana forms of the natyasastra tradition. The rasaka comes as something new. Although rasa is mentioned in the Natyasastra, it is not elaborately described by Bharata. The author devotes a full chapter to the rasaka and speaks in detail of the various types of rasa dances—the maharasa, majurasa, nityarasa, nirvesarasa or the kunjarcisa. He also speaks about the goparasa and quotes not Bharata as his authority but Gargacharya. Judging from these descriptions, it would appear that, in Manipuri not only the purely classical tradition of the Natyasastra but also the Puranic tradition of the Srimad Bhagvata have been blended. An authoritative sanction is thus given to the dance. In his discussion ofthe various angas and upangas, wre find a detailed account of the knee position and hastas. Significantly, hovrever, wre do not find a minute discussion of the various facial movements vdiich wrere dealt at length in the treatises of the South, especially those in Telugu and Malayalam. . A comparison of the textual description and contemporary practices reveals that by and large, Manipuri receives its theoretical sanction from this or conversely that the text reconstructs the theory on the basis of actual practice. It gives a comprehensive account of the chalis and the bhangis known to the dance style the gatibhangas as also the various types of chalans and sthanakas. All these are unique to Manipur. Other relevant manuscripts have been found, such as the Mridanga Sangraha. This wrork is attributed to Chandrakirti and contains extremely valuable details  of playing the particular variety of drum called the khol in Manipuri.

The other treatise, Sri Krishna Rasa Sangita Sangraha by Bhakti Sidhanta, was, perhaps, written earlier than the Mridanga Sangraha; it contains many of the lyrics to which the rasa dances are performed today. The Technique In technique, Manipuri is a far cry from anything we know in the other styles of dance. It has a flow and a gra